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Caricature of the Third Estate carrying the First Estate (clergy) and the Second Estate (nobility) on its backIn 1774 ascended to the throne in the middle of a in which the state was faced with a budget deficit and was nearing bankruptcy. This was due in part to France's costly involvements in the and later the. In May 1776, finance minister was dismissed, after failing to enact reforms. The next year, a foreigner, was appointed -General of Finance. He could not be made an official minister because he was a Protestant.Necker realised that the country's extremely system subjected the lower classes to a heavy burden, while numerous exemptions existed for the nobility and clergy. He argued that the country could not be taxed higher; that tax exemptions for the nobility and clergy must be reduced; and proposed that borrowing more money would solve the country's fiscal shortages. Necker published a report to support this claim that underestimated the deficit by roughly 36 million, and proposed restricting the power of the.This was not received well by the King's ministers, and Necker, hoping to bolster his position, argued to be made a minister.
The King refused, Necker was dismissed, and was appointed to the Comptrollership. Calonne initially spent liberally, but he quickly realised the critical financial situation and proposed a new.The proposal included a consistent, which would include taxation of the nobility and clergy. Faced with opposition from the parlements, Calonne organised the summoning of the. But the Assembly failed to endorse Calonne's proposals and instead weakened his position through its criticism. In response, the King announced the calling of the, the first time the body had been summoned since 1614.
This was a signal that the was in a weakened state and subject to the demands of its people. Estates-General of 1789. Main article:The Estates-General was organised into three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the rest of France. It had last met in 1614.
Elections were held in the spring of 1789; suffrage requirements for the Third Estate were for French-born or naturalised males, aged 25 years or more, who resided where the vote was to take place and who paid taxes. Strong turnout produced 1,201 delegates, including 303 clergy, 291 nobles and 610 members of the Third Estate. The First Estate represented 100,000 Catholic clergy; the Church owned about 10% of the land and collected its own taxes (the tithe) on peasants.
The lands were controlled by bishops and abbots of monasteries, but two-thirds of the 303 delegates from the First Estate were ordinary parish priests; only 51 were bishops. The Second Estate represented the nobility, about 400,000 men and women who owned about 25% of the land and collected seigneurial dues and rents from their peasant tenants. About a third of these deputies were nobles, mostly with minor holdings. The Third Estate representation was doubled to 610 men, representing 95% of the population. Half were well educated lawyers or local officials. Nearly a third were in trades or industry; 51 were wealthy land owners. The in July 1789 is widely regarded as the most iconic event of the Revolution.Many Parisians presumed Louis' actions to be aimed against the Assembly and began open rebellion when they heard the news the next day.
They were also afraid that arriving soldiers – mostly foreign mercenaries – had been summoned to shut down the. The Assembly, meeting at Versailles, went into nonstop session to prevent another eviction from their meeting place. Paris was soon consumed by riots, chaos, and widespread looting. The mobs soon had the support of some of the, who were armed and trained soldiers.On 14 July, the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the fortress, which was also perceived to be a symbol of royal power. After several hours of combat, the prison fell that afternoon. Despite ordering a ceasefire, which prevented a mutual massacre, Governor Marquis was beaten, stabbed and decapitated; his head was placed on a pike and paraded about the city.
Although the fortress had held only seven prisoners (four forgers, two noblemen kept for immoral behaviour, and a murder suspect) the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the. Returning to the (city hall), the mob accused the (roughly, mayor) of treachery and butchered him.The King, alarmed by the violence, backed down, at least for the time being. The took up command of the National Guard at Paris., president of the Assembly at the time of the, became the city's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the commune. The King visited Paris, where, on 17 July he accepted a, to cries of Vive la Nation ('Long live the Nation') and Vive le Roi ('Long live the King').Necker was recalled to power, but his triumph was short-lived. An astute financier but a less astute politician, Necker overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty, losing much of the people's favour.
As civil authority rapidly deteriorated, with random acts of violence and theft breaking out across the country, members of the nobility, fearing for their safety, fled to neighbouring countries; many of these, as they were called, funded counter-revolutionary causes within France and urged foreign monarchs to offer military support to a.By late July, the spirit of had spread throughout France. In rural areas, many commoners began to form militias and arm themselves against a foreign invasion: some attacked the of the nobility as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as 'la Grande Peur' ('the '). In addition, wild rumours and paranoia caused widespread unrest and civil disturbances that contributed to the collapse of law and order.
Abolition of feudalism. The of 26 August 1789On 4 and 11 August 1789 the (numerous peasant revolts had almost brought feudalism to an end) in the, sweeping away, exclusive hunting rights and other seigneurial rights of the Second Estate (nobility).Also the (a 10% tax for the Church, gathered by the ), which had been the main source of income for many, was abolished. During the course of a few hours nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies and cities lost their special privileges.Historian summarises the night's work:Without debate the Assembly enthusiastically adopted equality of taxation and redemption of all manorial rights except for those involving personal servitude – which were to be abolished without indemnification. Other proposals followed with the same success: the equality of legal punishment, admission of all to public office, abolition of venality in office, conversion of the tithe into payments subject to redemption, freedom of worship, prohibition of plural holding of benefices. Privileges of provinces and towns were offered as a last sacrifice.Originally the peasants were supposed to pay for the release of seigneurial dues; these dues affected more than a fourth of the farmland in France and provided most of the income of the large landowners. The majority refused to pay and in 1793 the obligation was cancelled.
Thus the peasants got their land free, and also no longer paid the tithe to the church.Furet emphasises that the decisions of August 1789 survived and became an integral part ofthe founding texts of modern France. They destroyed aristocratic society from top to bottom, along with its structure of dependencies and privileges. For this structure they substituted the modern, autonomous individual, free to do whatever was not prohibited by law.
The Revolution thus distinguished itself quite early by its radical individualismThe old judicial system, based on the 13 regional, was suspended in November 1789, and officially abolished in September 1790. The main institutional pillars of the old regime had vanished overnight. Declaration of the Rights of Man.
Engraving of the Women's March on Versailles, 5 October 1789Fuelled by rumours of a reception for the King's bodyguards on 1 October 1789, at which the national cockade had been trampled upon, on 5 October 1789, crowds of women began to assemble at Parisian markets. The women first marched to the, demanding that city officials address their concerns. The women were responding to the harsh economic situations they faced, especially bread shortages. They also demanded an end to royal efforts to block the National Assembly, and for the King and his administration to move to Paris as a sign of good faith in addressing the widespread poverty.Getting unsatisfactory responses from city officials, as many as 7,000 women joined the march to Versailles, bringing with them cannons and a variety of smaller weapons. Twenty thousand National Guardsmen under the command of Lafayette responded to keep order, and members of the mob stormed the palace, killing several guards. Lafayette ultimately persuaded the king to accede to the demand of the crowd that the monarchy relocate to Paris.On 6 October 1789, the King and the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris under the 'protection' of the National Guards, thus legitimising the National Assembly.Revolution and the Church.The Legislative Assembly degenerated into chaos before October 1792. Francis Charles Montague concluded in 1911, 'In the attempt to govern, the Assembly failed altogether.
It left behind an empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, and a people debauched by safe and successful riot.' Lyons argues that the Constituent Assembly had liberal, rational, and individualistic goals that seem to have been largely achieved by 1791.
However, it failed to consolidate the gains of the Revolution, which continued with increasing momentum and escalating radicalism until 1794. Lyons identifies six reasons for this escalation. First, the king did not accept the limitations on his powers, and mobilised support from foreign monarchs to reverse it. Second, the effort to overthrow the Roman Catholic Church, sell off its lands, close its monasteries and its charitable operations, and replace it with an unpopular makeshift system caused deep consternation among the pious and the peasants. Third, the economy was badly hurt by the issuance of ever increasing amounts of paper money ( ), which caused more and more inflation; the rising prices hurt the urban poor who spent most of their income on food. Fourth, the rural peasants demanded liberation from the heavy system of taxes and dues owed to local landowners. Fifth, the working class of Paris and the other cities – the – resented the fact that the property owners and professionals had taken all the spoils of the Revolution.
Finally, foreign powers threatened to overthrow the Revolution, which responded with extremism and systematic violence in its own defence. Constitutional crisis. Main articles:, andIn the summer of 1792, all of Paris was against the king, and hoped that the would depose the king, but the Assembly hesitated.
At dawn of 10 August 1792, a large, angry crowd of Parisians and soldiers from all over France, supported by the revolutionary, where the king resided, assailed the Palace and killed the who were assigned for the protection of the king.Around 8:00 am the king decided to leave his palace and seek safety with his wife and children in the Assembly that was gathered in permanent session in opposite to the Tuileries. The royal family became prisoners.After 11:00 am, a of the Legislative Assembly 'temporarily relieved the king from his task' and thus suspended the monarchy; little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins.
In reaction, on 19 August the general invaded France and besieged. Main articles: andFrom 1793 to 1815 France was engaged almost continuously (with two short breaks) in wars with Britain and a changing coalition of other major powers. The many French successes led to the spread of the French revolutionary ideals into neighbouring countries, and indeed across much of Europe. However, the final defeat of Napoleon in 1814 (and 1815) brought a reaction that reversed some – but not all – of the revolutionary achievements in France and Europe. The Bourbons were restored to the throne, with the brother of King Louis XVI becoming.
French victory over the Prussians at the on 20 September 1792The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. The King, many of the Feuillants, and the Girondins specifically wanted to wage war.
The King (and many Feuillants with him) expected war would increase his personal popularity; he also foresaw an opportunity to exploit any defeat: either result would make him stronger. The Girondins wanted to throughout Europe and, by extension, to defend the Revolution within France.
The forces opposing war were much weaker. Barnave and his supporters among the Feuillants feared a war they thought France had little chance to win and which they feared might lead to greater radicalisation of the revolution. On the other end of the political spectrum, fearing that it would strengthen the monarchy and military at the expense of the revolution, and that it would incur the anger of ordinary people in Austria and elsewhere. The Austrian emperor, brother of, may have wished to avoid war, but he died on 1 March 1792.
France preemptively declared war on Austria (20 April 1792) and joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. The invading Prussian army faced little resistance until it was checked at the (20 September 1792) and forced to withdraw.
The defeated the combined armies of Austrians, Dutch and British at Fleurus in June 1794.The new-born Republic followed up on this success with a series of victories in Belgium and the in the fall of 1792. The French armies defeated the Austrians at the on 6 November, and had soon taken over most of the Austrian Netherlands. This brought them into conflict with Britain and the, which wished to preserve the independence of the southern Netherlands from France. After the French king's execution in January 1793, these powers, along with Spain and most other European states, joined the war against France. Almost immediately, French forces suffered defeats on many fronts, and were driven out of their newly conquered territories in the spring of 1793. At the same time, the republican regime was forced to deal with rebellions against its authority in much of western and southern France. But the allies failed to take advantage of French disunity, and by the autumn of 1793 the republican regime had defeated most of the internal rebellions and halted the allied advance into France itself.This stalemate ended in the summer of 1794 with dramatic French victories.
The French defeated the allied army at the, leading to a full Allied withdrawal from the Austrian Netherlands. They pushed the allies to the east bank of the Rhine, allowing France, by the beginning of 1795, to conquer the Dutch Republic itself.
The House of Orange was expelled and replaced by the, a French satellite state. These victories led to the collapse of the anti-French coalition. Prussia, having effectively abandoned the coalition in the fall of 1794, made peace with revolutionary France at in April 1795, and soon thereafter Spain also made peace with France. Britain and Austria were the only major powers to remain at war with France.Colonial uprisings. Main article:Late in August 1792, elections were held, now under male, for the new, which replaced the on 20 September 1792.
From the start the Convention suffered from the bitter division between a group around Robespierre, and Marat, referred to as ' or ' or the 'left', and a group referred to as ' or the 'right'. But the majority of the representatives, referred to as ', were member of neither of those two antagonistic groups and managed to preserve some speed in the Convention's debates.Immediately on 21 September the Convention abolished the monarchy, making France the. A new was introduced to replace the Christian, renaming the year 1792 as year 1 of the Republic.With wars against Prussia and Austria having started earlier in 1792, France also declared war on the and the in November 1792.In the course of 1793, the, the kings of and and the declared. Execution of Louis XVI. Queen on the way to the guillotine on 16 October 1793 (drawing by )'Reign of Terror' is a label used by some historians for (part of) French history between July 1789 and July 1794, but those historians adhere that label to different periods.The came under the control of, a lawyer, and the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (1793–94). According to archival records, at least 16,594 people died under the or otherwise after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities.
As many as 40,000 accused prisoners may have been summarily executed without or died awaiting trial.On 2 June 1793, Paris sections – encouraged by the ('enraged ones') and – took over the, calling for administrative and political purges, a low fixed price for bread, and a limitation of the electoral to alone. With the backing of the, they managed to persuade the Convention to arrest 31 Girondin leaders, including. Following these arrests, the Jacobins gained control of the Committee of Public Safety on 10 June, installing the revolutionary dictatorship.On 24 June, the Convention adopted the first republican constitution of France, variously referred to as the or Constitution of the Year I. It was progressive and radical in several respects, in particular by establishing.
The execution of Robespierre on 28 July 1794 marked the end of the.,. 28 July, they and 19 other leading Jacobins were beheaded. 29 July, again 70 Parisians were guillotined.Subsequently, the was repealed, and the ' expelled from the in June 1793, if not dead yet, were reinstated as Convention deputies.
Disregarding the lower classesAfter July 1794, the French government was dominated by ', who indulged in revenge and violence and death sentences against people associated with the previous '/' governments around and, in what was known as the. The was closed and banned.After July 1794, most civilians henceforth ignored the and returned to the traditional.The government in a law of 21 February 1795 set steps of return to freedom of religion and reconciliation with the since 1790 priests, but any religious signs outside churches or private homes, such as crosses, clerical garb, bell ringing, remained prohibited. When the people's enthusiasm for attending church grew to unexpected levels the government backed out and in October 1795 again, like in 1790, required all priests to swear oaths on the Republic.In the very cold winter of 1794–95, with more and more bread, same was getting scarce in Paris as was wood to keep houses warm, and in an echo of the, on 1 April 1795 (12 ) a mostly female crowd marched on the calling for bread. But no Convention member sympathized, they just told the women to return home. Again in May a crowd of 20,000 men and 40,000 women invaded the Convention and even killed a deputy in the halls, but again they failed to make the Convention take notice of the needs of the lower classes.
Instead, the Convention banned women from all political assemblies, and deputies who had solidarized with this insurrection were sentenced to death: such allegiance between parliament and street fighting was no longer tolerated.Late 1794, France conquered present-day. In January 1795 they subdued the with full consent and cooperation of the influential Dutch, resulting in the, a satellite and puppet state of France.In April 1795, France concluded with, later that year peace was agreed with. The Directory (1795–99). In the (9 November 1799)France was, in, in.When the elections of 1798 were again carried by the opposition, the Directory used the army to imprison and exile the opposition leaders and close their newspapers. Increasingly it depended on the Army in foreign and domestic affairs, as well as finance.In 1799, when the French armies abroad, the newly chosen director considered a new overhaul necessary for the because in his opinion it needed a stronger executive.
Together with successful general who had just returned to France, Sieyes began preparing another, which, replacing the five directors now with three ': Napoleon, Sieyes, and Roger Ducos. That coup some historians consider the closing of the specifically republican phase of the French Revolution. Exporting the RevolutionThe Army at first was quite successful. It conquered Belgium and turned it into a province of France; conquered the Netherlands and made it a puppet state; and conquered Switzerland and most of Italy, setting up a series of puppet states. The result was glory for France and an infusion of much needed money from the conquered lands, which also provided direct support to the French Army.
However, the enemies of France, led by Britain and funded by the inexhaustible British Treasury, formed a in 1799 (with Britain joined by Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Austria). The allies scored a series of victories that rolled back French successes, retaking Italy, Switzerland and the Netherlands and ending the flow of payments from the conquered areas to France. The treasury was empty. Despite his publicity claiming many glorious victories, Napoleon's army was trapped in Egypt after the British sank the French fleet at the. Napoleon escaped by himself, returned to Paris and overthrew the Directory in November 1799. Victory under and against the Russians and British in 1799Napoleon conquered most of Italy in the name of the French Revolution in 1797–99. He consolidated old units and split up Austria's holdings.
He set up a series of new republics, complete with new codes of law and abolition of old feudal privileges. Napoleon's was centred on Milan. Genoa the city became a republic while its hinterland became the.
The was formed out of the papal holdings and the pope was sent to France. The was formed around Naples, but it lasted only five months before the enemy forces of the Coalition recaptured it. In 1805 Napoleon formed the, with himself as king and his stepson as viceroy.
In addition, France turned the Netherlands into the, and Switzerland into the. All these new countries were satellites of France and had to pay large subsidies to Paris, as well as provide military support for Napoleon's wars. Their political and administrative systems were modernised, the metric system introduced, and trade barriers reduced.
Jewish ghettos were abolished. Belgium and Piedmont became integral parts of France.Most of the new nations were abolished and returned to prewar owners in 1814.
However, Artz emphasises the benefits the Italians gained from the French Revolution:For nearly two decades the Italians had the excellent codes of law, a fair system of taxation, a better economic situation, and more religious and intellectual toleration than they had known for centuries. Everywhere old physical, economic, and intellectual barriers had been thrown down and the Italians had begun to be aware of a common nationality. Media and symbolism.
A copy of L'Ami du peuple stained with the blood of MaratIn the Old regime there were a small number of heavily censored newspapers that needed a royal licence to operate. Newspapers and pamphlets played a central role in stimulating and defining the Revolution. The meetings of the Estates-General in 1789 created an enormous demand for news, and over 130 newspapers appeared by the end of the year. Among the most significant of these newspapers in 1789 were Marat's L'Ami du peuple and Revolutions de Paris. The next decade saw 2,000 newspapers founded, with 500 in Paris alone.
Most lasted only a matter of weeks. Together they became the main communication medium, combined with the very large pamphlet literature. Newspapers were read aloud in taverns and clubs, and circulated hand to hand. The press saw its lofty role to be the advancement of civic republicanism based on public service, and downplayed the liberal, individualistic goal of making a profit.
By 1793 the radicals were most active but at the start the royalists flooded the country with their press the 'Ami du Roi' (Friends of the King) until they were suppressed. Napoleon only allowed four newspapers, all under tight control.SymbolismSymbolism was a device to distinguish the main features of the Revolution and ensure public identification and support. In order to effectively illustrate the differences between the new Republic and the old regime, the leaders needed to implement a new set of symbols to be celebrated instead of the old religious and monarchical symbolism. To this end, symbols were borrowed from historic cultures and redefined, while those of the old regime were either destroyed or reattributed acceptable characteristics. These revised symbols were used to instil in the public a new sense of tradition and reverence for the Enlightenment and the Republic. La Marseillaise.
Main article:Hanson notes, 'The guillotine stands as the principal symbol of the Terror in the French Revolution.' Invented by a physician during the Revolution as a quicker, more efficient and more distinctive form of execution, the guillotine became a part of popular culture and historic memory. It was celebrated on the left as the people's avenger and cursed as the symbol of the by the right. Its operation became a popular entertainment that attracted great crowds of spectators. Vendors sold programmes listing the names of those scheduled to die. Many people came day after day and vied for the best locations from which to observe the proceedings; knitting women formed a cadre of hardcore regulars, inciting the crowd.
Parents often brought their children. By the end of the Terror, the crowds had thinned drastically. Repetition had staled even this most grisly of entertainments, and audiences grew bored.What it is that horrifies people changes over time. Doyle comments:Even the unique horror of the guillotine has been dwarfed by the gas chambers of the Holocaust, the organized brutality of the gulag, the mass intimidation of Mao's cultural revolution, or the killing fields of Cambodia.
Tricolore cockade. The tricolour cockade, created in July 1789. White was added to 'nationalise' an earlier blue and red design.The tricolour flag is derived from the cockades used in the 1790s.
These were circular rosette-like emblems attached to the hat. Asked his followers to wear green cockades on 12 July 1789. The Paris militia, formed on 13 July, adopted a blue and red cockade. Blue and red are the traditional colours of Paris, and they are used on the city's coat of arms. Cockades with various colour schemes were used during the storming of the Bastille on 14 July. The blue and red cockade was presented to King at the on 17 July. Lafayette argued for the addition of a white stripe to 'nationalise' the design.
On 27 July, a tricolour cockade was adopted as part of the uniform of the National Guard, the national police force that succeeded the militia.Well after the revolution, by 1912 the had authorised the form of the tricolore cockade for use on its military aircraft by the as a, the first-ever in use worldwide – it is still in use by the current of France, and directly inspired the use of similar insignia by and many other nations worldwide.Fasces. Club of patriotic women in a churchHistorians since the late 20th century have debated how women shared in the French Revolution and what long-term impact it had on French women. Women had no political rights in pre-Revolutionary France; they were considered 'passive' citizens; forced to rely on men to determine what was best for them.
That changed dramatically in theory as there seemingly were great advances in feminism. Feminism emerged in Paris as part of a broad demand for social and political reform. The women demanded equality for women and then moved on to a demand for the end of male domination. Their chief vehicle for agitation were pamphlets and women's clubs; for example, a small group called the Cercle Social (Social Circle) campaigned for women's rights, noting that 'the laws favor men at the expense of women, because everywhere power is in your hands.' However, in October 1793, the country's all-male legislative body voted to ban all women's clubs. The movement was crushed.
Devance explains the decision in terms of the emphasis on masculinity in a wartime situation, Marie Antoinette's bad reputation for feminine interference in state affairs, and traditional male supremacy. A decade later the Napoleonic Code confirmed and perpetuated women's second-class status.When the Revolution opened, groups of women acted forcefully, making use of the volatile political climate. Women forced their way into the political sphere. They swore oaths of loyalty, 'solemn declarations of patriotic allegiance, and affirmations of the political responsibilities of citizenship.' Is a prime example of such a woman; engaged in the revolutionary political faction of the, she assassinated the leader,. Throughout the Revolution, other women such as and her supported the radical Jacobins, staged demonstrations in the National Assembly and participated in the riots, often using armed force.The March to Versailles is but one example of feminist militant activism during the French Revolution. While largely left out of the thrust for increasing rights of citizens, as the question was left indeterminate in the Declaration of the Rights of Man, activists such as and agitated for full citizenship for women.
Women were, nonetheless, 'denied political rights of 'active citizenship' (1791) and democratic citizenship (1793).' On 20 June 1792 a number of armed women took part in a procession that 'passed through the halls of the Legislative Assembly, into the Tuileries Gardens, and then through the King's residence.' Militant women also assumed a special role in the funeral of, following his murder on 13 July 1793. As part of the funeral procession, they carried the bathtub in which Marat had been murdered (by a counter-revolutionary woman) as well as a shirt stained with Marat's blood.
La Revolution Francaise Wikipedia
On 20 May 1793 women were at the fore of a crowd that demanded 'bread and the Constitution of 1793.' When their cries went unnoticed, the women went on a rampage, 'sacking shops, seizing grain and kidnapping officials.' Was the author of the in 1791.The Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, a militant group on the far left, demanded a law in 1793 that would compel all women to wear the tricolour cockade to demonstrate their loyalty to the Republic. They also demanded vigorous price controls to keep bread – the major food of the poor people – from becoming too expensive.
After the Convention passage law in September 1793, the Revolutionary Republican Women demanded vigorous enforcement, but were counted by market women, former servants, and religious women who adamantly opposed price controls (which would drive them out of business ) and resented attacks on the aristocracy and on religion. Fist fights broke out in the streets between the two factions of women.Meanwhile, the men who controlled the Jacobins rejected the Revolutionary Republican Women as dangerous rabble-rousers. At this point the Jacobins controlled the government; they dissolved the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women, and decreed that all women's clubs and associations were illegal. They sternly reminded women to stay home and tend to their families by leaving public affairs to the men. Organised women were permanently shut out of the French Revolution after 30 October 1793. Prominent womenwrote a number of plays, short stories, and novels. Her publications emphasised that women and men are different, but this shouldn't stop them from equality under the law.
In her 'Declaration on the Rights of Woman' she insisted that women deserved rights, especially in areas concerning them directly, such as divorce and recognition of illegitimate children.(a.k.a. Manon or Marie Roland) was another important female activist.
Her political focus was not specifically on women or their liberation. She focused on other aspects of the government, but was a feminist by virtue of the fact that she was a woman working to influence the world.
Her personal letters to leaders of the Revolution influenced policy; in addition, she often hosted political gatherings of the Brissotins, a political group which allowed women to join. As she was led to the scaffold, Madame Roland shouted 'O liberty!
What crimes are committed in thy name!' Most of these activists were punished for their actions. Many of the women of the Revolution were even publicly executed for 'conspiring against the unity and the indivisibility of the Republic'. Counter-revolutionary womenA major aspect of the French Revolution was the movement, a movement strongly rejected by many devout people. Especially for women living in rural areas of France, the closing of the churches meant a loss of normalcy.When these revolutionary changes to the Church were implemented, it sparked a counter-revolutionary movement among women. Although some of these women embraced the political and social amendments of the Revolution, they opposed the dissolution of the Catholic Church and the formation of revolutionary cults like the.
As Olwen Hufton argues, these women began to see themselves as the 'defenders of faith'. They took it upon themselves to protect the Church from what they saw as a heretical change to their faith, enforced by revolutionaries.Counter-revolutionary women resisted what they saw as the intrusion of the state into their lives.
Economically, many peasant women refused to sell their goods for because this form of currency was unstable and was backed by the sale of confiscated Church property. By far the most important issue to counter-revolutionary women was the passage and the enforcement of the in 1790. In response to this measure, women in many areas began circulating anti-oath pamphlets and refused to attend masses held by priests who had sworn oaths of loyalty to the Republic.
These women continued to adhere to traditional practices such as Christian burials and naming their children after saints in spite of revolutionary decrees to the contrary. Economic policies. The value of Assignats (1789–96)The French Revolution abolished many of the constraints on the economy that had slowed growth during the ancien regime. It abolished tithes owed to local churches as well as feudal dues owed to local landlords. The result hurt the tenants, who paid both higher rents and higher taxes. It nationalised all church lands, as well as lands belonging to royalist enemies who went into exile. It planned to use these seized lands to finance the government by issuing.
It abolished the guild system as a worthless remnant of feudalism. It also abolished the highly inefficient system of, whereby private individuals would collect taxes for a hefty fee. The government seized the foundations that had been set up (starting in the 13th century) to provide an annual stream of revenue for hospitals, poor relief, and education. The state sold the lands but typically local authorities did not replace the funding and so most of the nation's charitable andThe economy did poorly in 1790–96 as industrial and agricultural output dropped, foreign trade plunged, and prices soared.
The government decided not to repudiate the old debts. Instead it issued more and more paper money (called 'assignat') that supposedly were grounded seized lands. The result was escalating inflation. The government imposed price controls and persecuted speculators and traders in the black market. People increasingly refused to pay taxes as the annual government deficit increased from 10% of gross national product in 1789 to 64% in 1793. By 1795, after the bad harvest of 1794 and the removal of price controls, inflation had reached a level of 3500%. The assignats were withdrawn in 1796 but the replacements also fuelled inflation.
The inflation was finally ended by Napoleon in 1803 with the franc as the new currency.Napoleon after 1799 paid for his expensive wars by multiple means, starting with the modernisation of the rickety financial system. He conscripted soldiers at low wages, raised taxes, placed large-scale loans, sold lands formerly owned by the Catholic Church, sold Louisiana to the United States, plundered conquered areas and seized food supplies, and levied requisitions on countries he controlled, such as Italy. Long-term impact. Main article:Economic historians Dan Bogart, Mauricio Drelichman, Oscar Gelderblom, and Jean-Laurent Rosenthal described as the French Revolution's 'most significant export.'
They wrote, 'While restoration returned most of their power to the absolute monarchs who had been deposed by Napoleon, only the most recalcitrant ones, such as Ferdinand VII of Spain, went to the trouble of completely reversing the legal innovations brought on by the French.' They also note that the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars caused England, Spain, Prussia and the Dutch Republic to centralize their fiscal systems to an unprecedented extent in order to finance the military campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars.According to, Davide Cantoni, and the French Revolution had long-term effects in Europe. They suggest that 'areas that were occupied by the French and that underwent radical institutional reform experienced more rapid urbanization and economic growth, especially after 1850. There is no evidence of a negative effect of French invasion.'
A 2016 study in the found that the areas of Germany that were occupied by France in the 19th century and in which the Code Napoleon was applied have higher levels of trust and cooperation today. BritainOn 16 July 1789, two days after the, serving as ambassador to France, reported to, 'Thus, my Lord, the greatest revolution that we know anything of has been effected with, comparatively speaking – if the magnitude of the event is considered – the loss of very few lives. From this moment we may consider France as a free country, the King a very limited monarch, and the nobility as reduced to a level with the rest of the nation. ' Yet Britain saw minority support while the majority, and especially the among aristocracy, strongly opposed the French Revolution.
Britain led and funded the series of coalitions that fought France from 1793 to 1815, and then restored the Bourbons.Philosophically and politically, Britain was in debate over the rights and wrongs of revolution, in the abstract and in practicalities. The was a ' set off by the publication of, a speech given by to the on 4 November 1789, supporting the French Revolution (as he had the ), and saying that patriotism actually centers around loving the people and principles of a nation, not its ruling class.
Responded in November 1790 with his own pamphlet, attacking the French Revolution as a threat to the aristocracy of all countries. Opposed Price's premise that one's country is principles and people, not the State itself.Conversely, two seminal political pieces of political history were written in Price's favor, supporting the general right of the French people to replace their State. One of the first of these ' into print was by (better known for her later treatise, sometimes described as the first feminist text, ); Wollstonecraft's title was echoed by 's, published a few months later. In 1792 published Defence of Dr. Price and the Reformers of England, a plea for reform and moderation.This exchange of ideas has been described as 'one of the great political debates in British history'.
Even in France, there was a varying degree of agreement during this debate, English participants generally opposing the violent means that the Revolution bent itself to for its ends.In Ireland, the effect was to transform what had been an attempt by Protestant settlers to gain some autonomy into a mass movement led by the involving Catholics and Protestants. It stimulated the demand for further reform throughout Ireland, especially in Ulster.
The upshot was a revolt in 1798, led by, that was crushed by Britain. GermanyGerman reaction to the Revolution swung from favourable to antagonistic. At first it brought liberal and democratic ideas, the end of gilds, serfdom and the Jewish ghetto. It brought economic freedoms and agrarian and legal reform.
Above all the antagonism helped stimulate and shape. Main article:The Kingdom of Denmark adopted liberalising reforms in line with those of the French Revolution, with no direct contact. Reform was gradual and the regime itself carried out agrarian reforms that had the effect of weakening absolutism by creating a class of independent peasant freeholders. Much of the initiative came from well-organised liberals who directed political change in the first half of the 19th century. United StatesThe Revolution deeply polarised American politics, and this polarisation led to the creation of the. In 1793, as war broke out in Europe, the led by favoured France and pointed to the 1778 treaty that was still in effect. And his unanimous cabinet, including Jefferson, decided that the treaty did not bind the United States to enter the war.
Causes De La Revolution Francaise
Washington proclaimed neutrality instead. Under President, a, an undeclared naval war took place with France from 1798 until 1799, often called the '. Jefferson became president in 1801, but was hostile to Napoleon as a dictator and emperor. However, the two entered negotiations over the and agreed to the in 1803, an acquisition that substantially increased the size of the United States.Historiography. Main article:The French Revolution has received enormous amounts of historical attention, both from the general public and from scholars and academics.
The views of historians, in particular, have been characterised as falling along ideological lines, with disagreement over the significance and the major developments of the Revolution. Argued that the Revolution was a manifestation of a more prosperous middle class becoming conscious of its social importance.Other thinkers, like the conservative, maintained that the Revolution was the product of a few conspiratorial individuals who brainwashed the masses into subverting the old order – a claim rooted in the belief that the revolutionaries had no legitimate complaints. Other historians, influenced by thinking, have emphasised the importance of the peasants and the urban workers in presenting the Revolution as a gigantic. In general, scholarship on the French Revolution initially studied the political ideas and developments of the era, but it has gradually shifted towards that analyses the impact of the Revolution on individual lives.Historians until the late 20th century emphasised class conflicts from a largely Marxist perspective as the fundamental driving cause of the Revolution. The central theme of this argument was that the Revolution emerged from the rising bourgeoisie, with support from the, who fought to destroy the aristocracy. However, Western scholars largely abandoned Marxist interpretations in the 1990s. By the year 2000 many historians were saying that the field of the French Revolution was in intellectual disarray.
La Revolution Francaise Pdf
The old model or paradigm focusing on class conflict has been discredited, and no new explanatory model had gained widespread support. Nevertheless, as Spang has shown, there persists a very widespread agreement to the effect that the French Revolution was the watershed between the premodern and modern eras of Western history.Historians widely regard the Revolution as one of the most important events in history. It marks the end of the, which started around 1500 and is often seen as marking the 'dawn of the '. Within France itself, the Revolution permanently crippled the power of the aristocracy and drained the wealth of the Church, although the two institutions survived despite the damage they sustained. After the collapse of the in 1815, the French public lost the rights and privileges earned since the Revolution, but they remembered the participatory politics that characterised the period, with one historian commenting: 'Thousands of men and even many women gained firsthand experience in the political arena: they talked, read, and listened in new ways; they voted; they joined new organisations; and they marched for their political goals. Revolution became a tradition, and an enduring option.' Some historians argue that the French people underwent a fundamental transformation in self-identity, evidenced by the elimination of privileges and their replacement by as well as the growing decline in social deference that highlighted the principle of equality throughout the Revolution.
The Revolution represented the most significant and dramatic challenge to political absolutism up to that point in history and spread democratic ideals throughout Europe and ultimately the world. Throughout the 19th century, the revolution was heavily analysed by economists and political scientists, who saw the nature of the revolution as a fundamental aspect in understanding human social evolution itself.
This, combined with the egalitarian values introduced by the revolution, gave rise to a classless and co-operative model for society called ' which profoundly influenced future revolutions in France and around the world.See also. for definitions of technical terms.Political groups during the French Revolution.